1,2 On the basis of findings of the intracellular parasites, which were smaller than usual for Plasmodia spp. and the absence of schizonts, gametocytes, and malaria pigment in microscopic JQ1 concentration reexamination, the diagnosis of Babesia microti infection was established and blood specimens were further investigated for serologic and molecular biological markers.

Antibody-specific serology was negative for Plasmodium spp. and for whole cell antigen of Babesia divergens in specimens collected at initial presentation and at follow-up visits. DNA amplification (MutaGel® Babesia-PCR; ImmunDiagnostik, Bensheim, Germany) showed a Babesia-specific band at ∼210 bp. Positive samples were retested employing a second PCR protocol amplifying the highly variable ribosomal internal transcribed spacer region 1 of all known Babesia species. Amplicons with 535 bp were detected and showed a 100% sequence identity in the amplified region to the B. microti strains ATCC30222 (AB190459; initially isolated in the Congo from a forest mouse and designated Babesia rodhaini) and GI (AB112337).3,4 Sequence data were deposited at GenBank (accession number: GU230755) Upon

information of the change in the definitive diagnosis from falciparum malaria to babesiosis and re-exploration of the travel history, the patient recalled having spent 4 weeks with outdoor recreational ALK inhibition activities in Massachusetts, USA, after his travel to Nicaragua. This region is known as the

epicenter of B. microti transmission in the United States and infection of the patient most probably occurred at this occasion. A standard course of oral azithromycin-atovaquone treatment was prescribed for 7 days in order to prevent recrudescence of babesiosis as the initial treatment with quinine-clindamycin which was shorter than recommended for this indication. This case report—the first human case of B. microti infection reported from Austria—strikingly illustrates the difficulties of correctly diagnosing Babesia infection.5 Misdiagnosis was due to an at the first sight compelling travel history to a tropical region in combination with clinical and laboratory why signs of hemolytic anemia and intra-erythrocytic ring-shaped parasites suggestive for malaria. Given the dramatic clinical disease course, necessitating—despite the absence of any underlying disease or immunosuppression—admission to the intensive care unit for treatment of hemodynamic shock, it is understandable that the initial diagnosis of severe P. falciparum malaria was established. Fortunately enough—and in contrast to recently updated recommendations for the treatment of severe malaria at our institution favoring the use of intravenous artesunate—quinine-clindamycin combination therapy was initiated in this case.

The work reported here from our own laboratories was funded by the Medical Research Council, the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council, the Wellcome Trust, the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (COLAMN), EU Framework 6 (FACETS), Novartis Pharma Basel and Glaxo Smith Kline. Abbreviations

BZ1, BZ2 and BZ3 benzodiazepine (binding site) type 1, 2 and 3 CASK Calcium/calmodulin-dependent serine protein kinase CCK cholecystokinin ER endoplasmic reticulum GABAAR GABAA receptor IAα5 α5-subunit-selective partial inverse agonist IPSC inhibitory postsynaptic current IPSP inhibitory postsynaptic potential LNS laminin neurexin sex hormone binding protein mGluR metabotropic glutamate receptor type NCAM neural cell adhesion molecules NL2 neuroligin 2 Dabrafenib NMDA N-methyl-D-aspartate OLM Oriens lacunosum moleculare PSD postsynaptic density PV parvalbumin RIM1α Regulating synaptic membrane exocytosis protein 1α “
“A successful Staphylococcus aureus vaccine should elicit a long-term antibody response that prevents establishment of the infection. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the functional role of antibodies raised against different S. aureus CP5 vaccines in invasion to bovine mammary epithelial

cells (MAC-T) and phagocytosis by bovine milk macrophages in vitro. Sera and whey from cows immunized with a whole-cell S. aureus CP5 vaccine adjuvanted with Al(OH)3 or with ISCOM Matrix, significantly reduced internalization of S. aureus in MAC-T cells without significant INK 128 mw differences between both groups. The effect of antibodies generated by a S. aureus whole-cell and a lysate vaccine formulated with ISCOM Matrix was also evaluated. Sera and whey from both immunized groups significantly reduced S. aureus internalization in MAC-T cells without significant differences between both groups. Whey antibodies against whole-cell 3-mercaptopyruvate sulfurtransferase and

lysate vaccines were also able to inhibit internalization in MAC-T cells of a heterologous S. aureus strain. In addition, sera from animals vaccinated with S. aureus lysate or bacterin promoted milk macrophage phagocytosis. These results provide an insight into the potential mechanisms by which these vaccines can afford protection to the mammary gland against S. aureus intramammary infection. “
“Fluorescent amplified fragment length polymorphism (FAFLP) analysis was applied to genetically fingerprint ‘working culture control strains’ used by accredited food microbiology laboratories. A working culture control strain is defined as a subculture from a strain initially obtained from an authenticated source [such as the National Collection of Type Cultures (NCTC)] that is maintained for use with routine testing within the laboratory.

As a result, many bacteria have acquired a considerable proportion of their genetic diversity from distantly related organisms by horizontal gene transfer (Ochman et al., 2000). The deduced amino acid sequences of the SXT genes shared 97–100% identity with GPCR Compound Library ic50 that of V. cholerae Ind4, V. fluvialis, Proteus mirabilis, Shewanella putrefacians, P. rettgeri, and Proteus vulgaris. We observed that the strains AN44 and AN60 were resistant to streptomycin, nalidixic acid, trimethoprim,

and sulfamethoxazole, which phenotypically confirms the presence of SXT integrase. This study allowed the identification of two new species harboring ICEs (Marinomonas sp. strain AN44 and V. fortis strain AN60) in aquatic environment. The remaining strains tested in this study lacked SXT/R391 ICEs gene (Table 1). Majority of the isolates displayed resistance to neomycin, ampicillin, tetracycline, streptomycin, Selumetinib order and sulfamethoxazole (94–100%). Seven strains displayed resistance to chloramphenicol that indicates less abundance of genes coding for chloramphenicol acyltransferase (41%). Resistance to other antibiotics was found in 72% (trimethoprim), 61% (nalidixic acid), and 50% (rifampicin). Antibiotic resistance pattern found in these bacterial strains suggests that some of the antibiotic resistance could be encoded in the

SXT/ICEs or in other mobile genetic elements. The presence of diversity in antibiotic resistance in these strains might constitute a pool of genes capable of moving among bacteria in the aquatic environment (Jacobs & Chenia, 2007). Recently, it has been demonstrated that in several vibrios, the mobile genetic elements such as SXT ICEs can contribute to the dissemination of antimicrobial and heavy metal resistance determinants in closed aquaculture environments (Rodríguez-Blanco et al., 2012). However, there has been no report on the presence of SXT integrase in V. fortis and Marinomonas strains isolated from any ecological niche. Our findings showed that SXT element–bearing drug resistance markers are present in Marinomonas species and V. fortis

isolated from the coral mucus F. echinata. These results provide another example of the spread of resistance genes in remote natural bacterial Methamphetamine population. We are grateful to the Ministry of Environment and Forest, Wildlife Division, Government of India, and The Chief Conservator of Forests (Wildlife), Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Port Blair, for officially allowing us to collect coral samples from the Andaman Sea. This work was supported in part by the funding received from the Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India (MoES/11-MRDF/1/59/P/08). The authors, JB and PK, acknowledge the Department of Biotechnology, and University Grant Commission, Government of India, New Delhi, respectively, for providing the junior research fellowship. “
“Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Ac toxin shares structurally five conserved blocs with the other δ-endotoxins.

6). In summary, results suggest that: (i) exposure to IS produced progressive increases in the thresholds of immobility, trotting, galloping and exophthalmos across stimulation sessions; (ii) 1 week after the end of one-way escape training, thresholds of immobility and trotting of IS rats were markedly higher than those of ES and FS groups; (iii) similarly, galloping thresholds of the find more IS rat group were reliably higher than those of ES group and marginally increased relative to the FS group; (iv) although the thresholds of these responses were also increased in ES and FS groups, changes were much smaller and thresholds were partly recovered in the last stimulation

session; (v) galloping was the response most sensitive to sham-shock procedures (vi) jumping was barely affected by any procedure; and (vii) thresholds of micturition and defecation presented an inverse pattern of changes, if anything. Thresholds of non-handled rats either did not change or were slightly reduced (immobility and exophthalmos) in stimulation sessions carried out at same intervals of the other groups (Table 3).

Groups buy Bortezomib differed significantly for EAE (F2,49 = 5.23, P < 0.01), but only marginally for OAT% (F2,49 = 2.73, P < 0.07) and TCP (F2,49 = 2.84, P < 0.07; Fig. 7). Post hoc comparisons of EAE showed that FS rats were more active than either the IS (t34 = 3.1, P < 0.005) or, marginally, the ES (t30 = 2.24, P < 0.03) group. Although the pairwise comparisons of other variables did not reach Bonferroni's 5% criterion (P < 0.02), IS rats showed a tendency to explore open arms more intensely than either FS (OAE%: t34 = 2.0, P < 0.05; OAT%: t34 = 2.1, P < 0.04) or ES (OAT%: t30 = 2.0, P < 0.05) groups. In contrast, ES rats showed a trend for staying longer in the central platform than either the FS (t34 = 2.0, P < 0.05) or the IS (t30 = 2.14, P < 0.04) groups. 17-DMAG (Alvespimycin) HCl Groups performed similarly in the FST (F2,59 = 2.39, P < 0.10; Fig. 8). The

poorer performance of IS rats in two-way escape test sessions confirmed the effectiveness of uncontrollable stress in impairing the learning of a novel escape task. In contrast, EPM and FST performances were hardly changed 8 and 10 days after the end of escape training, respectively. In fact, the only significant difference was the reduced exploration of EPM enclosed arms in IS rats relative to the FS group. Although to a lesser degree, this effect was also observed in the ES group. These data confirm earlier studies (Grahn et al., 1995) showing that the reduction in the exploration of enclosed arms is related to shock exposure and not stress controllability. ES rats also showed a trend for staying longer on the central platform. Most importantly, however, rats of the IS group showed a marginal increase in the exploration of open arms, thereby suggesting a mild anxiolytic effect if any. These results are in full accordance with the study of Grahn et al.

Since the widespread introduction of HAART, the duration of responses to treatment for KS has increased [66] and no further randomized trials have compared liposomal anthracyclines with nonencapsulated, anthracycline-based regimens. The safety and tolerability of these drugs in combination with HAART has been evaluated. In one study of 54 patients, 82% had a Oligomycin A cell line response within 8 weeks and the PLD-HAART combination was well tolerated with no evidence of suppression of CD4 cell counts [95]. In a cohort study of 50 patients treated with concomitant HAART and liposomal anthracycline chemotherapy for

KS, there was no decline in CD4 cell count or rise in HIV viral load [96]. These findings suggest that standard opportunistic infection prophylaxis guidelines may be followed when treating patients with liposomal anthracycline chemotherapy for KS. Based on the response rates, median response durations and the toxicity profile, liposomal anthracyclines are considered first-line chemotherapy for advanced KS (level of evidence 1A). Like vinca alkaloids, taxanes bind to the β subunit of α/β tubulin

and disrupt microtubules leading to mitotic arrest and subsequent cell death. Paclitaxel also promotes buy Pirfenidone apoptosis by binding to Bcl-2 via the same mechanism [97]. In a number of phase II trials, paclitaxel was shown to have single-agent activity against AIDS-KS; furthermore, these studies included a number of patients who had previously received anthracyclines [98–102]. One

Phase II study of paclitaxel (135 mg/m2 every 3 weeks) for KS, enrolled 28 patients and reported a response rate of 71%. This included four (14%) patients who had received anthracyclines but Interleukin-3 receptor no patients received HAART [99]. A second, larger study of 56 patients included 20 (36%) who received a protease inhibitor at some stage during the study and 40 (70%) who had received prior therapy for KS that included liposomal anthracyclines in 17 (30%). The overall objective response rate was 59% and the median response duration was 10.4 months [100]. A first-line study for advanced, symptomatic KS randomized 73 patients between paclitaxel 100 mg/m2 every 2 weeks and PLD 20 mg/m2 every 3 weeks; 73% patients received HAART (see Table 3.3) [103]. Treatment was associated with significant improvements in pain and swelling, for both arms. There was no significant difference between the arms in response rates, progression-free or overall survival at 2 years, and slightly higher rates of grade 3–4 toxicity for paclitaxel (84% vs. 66%, p = 0.07). Progression-free survival for both arms in this study was higher than those reported in the pre-HAART era. Pharmacokinetic studies revealed higher paclitaxel levels in patients taking protease inhibitors, though this did not have any obvious clinical impact [104]. Two studies have addressed the role of paclitaxel as second-line chemotherapy.

003) and attitude (more intended risk-taking behavior I-BET-762 datasheet in travelers with prior travel experience, p < 0.001) but not on the knowledge of travelers. As a result, these (opposite) effects may cancel each other out and thus minimize the impact of this potential confounder. Another limitation of this study may be the use of CDC maps—in

which high risk countries are separated from intermediate risk countries—instead of the WHO maps, which combines intermediate-risk and high-risk countries. As a consequence, in our study, eg, Turkey was categorized as a low-to-intermediate-risk country, whereas it was an important provider of cases of imported hepatitis A, at least in the Dutch setting.15 Lastly, not all respondents belonged mutually exclusively to one risk group; this may limit the effect attributed to a certain risk profile. However, to keep the analysis straightforward and clear, we did not correct for these effects. In conclusion, the results of this questionnaire-based survey suggest that protection rates of Dutch travelers against hepatitis A increase every year in concert with a slight annual reduction in intended risk-seeking behavior. Travelers VFR and solo as well as last-minute

travelers to high-risk destinations were identified Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitor Library as the risk groups with the highest increase in relative risk for hepatitis A. These specific risk groups should be considered candidates for targeted interventions. This study was done with financial and logistic support from GlaxoSmithKline. Clomifene Mr Michiel Vervoort is acknowledged for construction of the figure. Ms Kimberley Spong is acknowledged for English text-editing. Members of the Dutch Schiphol Airport Study Group

are: P. J. J. v G., MD, PhD (Havenziekenhuis, Rotterdam); P. G. H. M., MSc, PhD (Erasmus University, Rotterdam); Christian Hoebe, MD, PhD (GGD, Maastricht); Sietse Felix, MD (KLM Health Services, Amsterdam); P. P. A. M. v T., MD, PhD (Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam), and D. O., MD, PhD (Travel Clinic Havenziekenhuis, Rotterdam). P. J. J. v G. has received speaker’s fee and reimbursements from GlaxoSmithKline for attending symposia. D. O. has received speaker’s fee and reimbursements for attending symposia from GlaxoSmithKline and Sanofi Pasteur MSD. Other authors state they have no conflicts of interest to declare. “
“We would like to thank Drs Hagmann, Shah, and Purswani for their erudite discussion of antibody to hepatitis B core antigen (anti-HBc) and for clarifying the interpretation and management strategy of the isolated positive anti-HBc. In the context of our study on hepatitis B virus (HBV) screening practices, we did not capture additional data on the management of the opportunities presented from positive results, and we also faced lack of space in our article to provide detailed description of the optimal further evaluations.

Then the coated ITO glass was evaporated under vacuum for 2 h. The following procedure was used in succession: a square frame made of silicon served as a thickness (2 mm) spacer between the lipid-coated

glass and normal glass. The GSK2118436 concentration chamber was filled with 10 mM HEPES buffer (pH 7.2) through a hole in the silicon spacer. Immediately, the application of 1.7 V (peak-to-peak, sine wave) and 10 Hz to the ITO electrodes was carried out using a sweep function generator (Protek, Sweep Function Generator 9205C) for 2 h. GUVs from the ITO glass were then detached under conditions of 4 V (peak-to-peak, sine wave) and 4 Hz for 10 min. The peptides (at the MIC) were treated and changes of a single GUV were observed using an inverted fluorescence phase-contrast microscope (Leica, DFC420C) (Angelova & Dimitrov, 1986; Angelova et al., 1992; Lee & Lee, 2009). In this study, the antifungal effects of papiliocin were investigated to suggest the potential of the peptide as a novel antifungal peptide, by comparing it with melittin (Table 1), which was derived from the venom of honey bee Apis mellifera. Melittin is a representative membrane-active AMP, helping researchers to understand lipid–protein interactions at the molecular level, and is also known to PD 332991 have powerful antimicrobial and hemolytic activities (Habermann, 1972; Tosteson et al., 1985; Dempsey, 1990).

The antifungal activity of papiliocin against human fungal pathogens was first examined. AMPs have been considered to exhibit cell selectivity (Matsuzaki, 2009). This means that they selectively kill pathogenic microorganisms without being significantly toxic to human cells. This next concept, which coincides with roles of AMPs in innate immunity, arises from a plethora of observations showing that AMPs are nonhemolytic at concentrations well above their MICs against various

microorganisms (Matsuzaki, 2009). A cytotoxicity assay showed that papiliocin exerted antifungal activities against human pathogenic fungal strains, including yeasts and filamentous fungi, with MIC values in the 5–20 μM range, whereas for melittin, MIC values in the 1.25–5 μM range were determined (Table 2). Furthermore, in a previous study, papiliocin did not cause hemolysis of human erythrocytes, at any of the tested concentrations (Kim et al., 2010). Therefore, these results suggest that papiliocin has the potential to be considered as a novel antibiotic peptide for treating fungal diseases in humans, with potent antifungal activity without toxicity to human red blood cells. As antifungal agents could display static or cidal patterns of activity (Lewis, 2007), a time-kill kinetic assay was carried out using C. albicans to elucidate the pattern of activity of papiliocin. Candida albicans is an important pathogen in humans and is versatile as a pathogen.

We cannot draw conclusions in this regard based on our results because of the elevated percentage of samples in which IL-6 plasma levels were under the limit of detection, as has been seen in other studies [10, 15]. Lipid disturbances have also been investigated in relation to the increased cardiovascular risk in patients undergoing cART interruption, although the results are somewhat contradictory. Ceritinib Chronic infection, including that produced by HIV, is associated with changes in lipoprotein metabolism. This can lead to proatherogenic dyslipidaemia, especially hypertriglyceridaemia, and decreased HDL-c and LDL-c,

associated with changes in the properties of lipids, rendering them more proatherogenic [23]. In accordance with previous cART interruption studies, we found a decrease in total-c and LDL-c, but also in HDL-c [4-6]. As a result, 5-FU order in our study no change in the total-c/HDL-c ratio in patients discontinuing cART was found, in contrast to the SMART study in which an unfavourable change was observed [4]. As far as we know, this is the first study in which patients were treated mainly with NNRTIs, and our data are, at least in part, consistent with

those of the SMART study, in which the strongest HDL-c reduction was found in patients receiving NNRTIs [4]. As has been described, we observed a strong negative correlation between viral load and lipid measurements, supporting a role for HIV in these variables [6]. An interesting finding of our study, described previously in a non-HIV-infected [24] and HIV-infected population [25], is the association between lipid parameters,

especially HDL-c, and MCP-1 and sVCAM, confirmed in the multivariate Phloretin analysis and maintained over the lengthy follow-up period. Experiments with inflammatory lipopolysaccharide-induced animal models have shown that treatment with ApoA-I, the major component of HDL-c, induces a decrease in MCP-1 and sICAM-1. ApoA-I has modulating effects on MCP-1 expression [26]. Furthermore, it is known that the antioxidant effect occurring through paraoxonase-1, an enzyme contained in HDL-c, inhibits MCP-1 synthesis by endothelial cells [27]. It is likely that the anti-inflammatory effects of HDL-c are attenuated in untreated HIV infection. The negative correlation found between HDL-c and endothelial biomarkers is consistent with the results of studies pointing to a close association between lipids and inflammation pathways, probably mediated by HIV itself [25]. Our study has some limitations, the most important being the small sample, although significant differences were found between arms in some of the parameters. Baseline CD4 cell count differed between arms; however, the role of CD4 count in determining biomarker concentrations has not been clearly documented in previous interruption studies [5-10].

, 2007). Although degradation of phenolic compounds has not been studied in detail in PM1, exposure of this strain to MTBE induces additional pathways for the degradation of aromatics such as benzene, toluene, and xylene. In a recent study employing PCR-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) analysis of reverse-transcribed rRNA, active M. petroleiphilum was shown to accumulate in soils contaminated with penta-chlorophenol

(Cáliz et al., 2011). The specific Variovorax group (cluster C) was also represented by two sequences obtained from the midterm stage (sequences MID06_F3 and MID06_G7, OTU 7). Nevertheless, these two sequences were < 85% similar to Variovorax sp. HAB30. The ecological relevance of Variovorax sp. selleck screening library relies in the presence of a characteristic LmPH type, corresponding to highly active phenol-degrading enzymes with high semi-saturation constants according to determinations of kinetic PLX4032 research buy parameters using isolated cultures (Futamata et al., 2005). Cluster D grouped sequences belonging to Gammaproteobacteria with a high-Ks LmPH, including Pseudomonas putida relatives. A single sequence from the initial stage (sequence INI06_A3, OTU 1)

was found in cluster D. Interestingly, this sequence contained the typical signature of low-Ks phenol hydroxylases at amino acid positions 252 and 253, and position in the high-Ks group should be confirmed by incubation experiments with isolated cultures. The number of bacterial OTUs remained at relatively low values (from 5 to 10) in the three samples analyzed. The bacterial community at the initial and midterm stages of decomposition showed a greater richness, greater diversity (Shannon’s H′), and greater evenness (E) of LmPH gene compared to the late

stage (Table 1). The significant decrease in richness and diversity values suggests a major specificity of phenol-degrading bacteria in the late-stage community. The results from the phenol-degrading bacterial community analysis showed a highest degree of specialization at the late decomposition stage. All LmPH genes obtained at the late stage, except for one, grouped in clusters A and E together with Methocarbamol sequences belonging to known high-affinity phenol degraders (Watanabe et al., 1996). On the contrary, at the initial stage, the lower bacterial biomass and weaker phenol oxidase activity may indicate that decomposition of the large recalcitrant plant molecules had not yet begun (Fig. 1, Artigas et al., 2011). At this first stage, bacterial communities are supposed to be defined by environmental conditions of the stream and random colonization of the leaf surface (Harrop et al., 2009; Marks et al., 2009). Differences in the community composition of potential phenol-degrading bacteria were tested from the tree topology using UniFrac and parsimony tests.

, 2007). Although degradation of phenolic compounds has not been studied in detail in PM1, exposure of this strain to MTBE induces additional pathways for the degradation of aromatics such as benzene, toluene, and xylene. In a recent study employing PCR-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) analysis of reverse-transcribed rRNA, active M. petroleiphilum was shown to accumulate in soils contaminated with penta-chlorophenol

(Cáliz et al., 2011). The specific Variovorax group (cluster C) was also represented by two sequences obtained from the midterm stage (sequences MID06_F3 and MID06_G7, OTU 7). Nevertheless, these two sequences were < 85% similar to Variovorax sp. HAB30. The ecological relevance of Variovorax sp. http://www.selleckchem.com/products/3-methyladenine.html relies in the presence of a characteristic LmPH type, corresponding to highly active phenol-degrading enzymes with high semi-saturation constants according to determinations of kinetic http://www.selleckchem.com/products/sotrastaurin-aeb071.html parameters using isolated cultures (Futamata et al., 2005). Cluster D grouped sequences belonging to Gammaproteobacteria with a high-Ks LmPH, including Pseudomonas putida relatives. A single sequence from the initial stage (sequence INI06_A3, OTU 1)

was found in cluster D. Interestingly, this sequence contained the typical signature of low-Ks phenol hydroxylases at amino acid positions 252 and 253, and position in the high-Ks group should be confirmed by incubation experiments with isolated cultures. The number of bacterial OTUs remained at relatively low values (from 5 to 10) in the three samples analyzed. The bacterial community at the initial and midterm stages of decomposition showed a greater richness, greater diversity (Shannon’s H′), and greater evenness (E) of LmPH gene compared to the late

stage (Table 1). The significant decrease in richness and diversity values suggests a major specificity of phenol-degrading bacteria in the late-stage community. The results from the phenol-degrading bacterial community analysis showed a highest degree of specialization at the late decomposition stage. All LmPH genes obtained at the late stage, except for one, grouped in clusters A and E together with check details sequences belonging to known high-affinity phenol degraders (Watanabe et al., 1996). On the contrary, at the initial stage, the lower bacterial biomass and weaker phenol oxidase activity may indicate that decomposition of the large recalcitrant plant molecules had not yet begun (Fig. 1, Artigas et al., 2011). At this first stage, bacterial communities are supposed to be defined by environmental conditions of the stream and random colonization of the leaf surface (Harrop et al., 2009; Marks et al., 2009). Differences in the community composition of potential phenol-degrading bacteria were tested from the tree topology using UniFrac and parsimony tests.