Land use was 93% cattle ranching, 7% hunting safari area with suitable prey species including kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), duiker (Sylvicapra grimmea) and impala (Aepyceros melampus; Childes, 1988; Rasmussen, 1997). Cattle stocking rates (including Selleck R788 calves) averaged 5.5/km2 in winter to 13.2/km2 in summer (Rasmussen, 1999) with trophy hunting of ungulates occurring from May to October. As the Nyamandlovu ranching region was 60 km from the nearest town, light sources for both study areas were the same. Hwange focal packs were those that either resided entirely in areas contiguous with the park or occupied

home ranges within 60 km of the park border, lions [2.7/100 km2 (Loveridge et al., 2007)], hyaenas [10.2/100 km2 (Salnicki, 2002)] leopards and suitable prey (Bougarel, LY2835219 in vitro 2004) being present throughout

the study area. Land use comprised 35% national park, 25% photographic safari area, 35% hunting safari area and 5% cattle ranching. Data came from 22 known packs, 13 of which were radio collared for all or part their study, and by using foot tracking, a small number of unidentified units. Study time, in months, for the known packs, ranged from 3.9 to 73.3, , sd = 20.11. For this study, 18 dogs (11 males, 7 females) were chemically immobilized with a ketamine : xylazine (Pfizer, Kent, UK) dose of 180 mg : 33 mg. Only adults over the age of 14 months were collared, with the individual being selected on the basis of the safety of the shot. Alpha females were never collared even if not suspected to be pregnant because ketamine is known to cross the placental barrier. Darting was only undertaken in the mornings in order to reduce the predation risk from interguild competitors, and restricted to open habitats to reduce the likelihood of losing an anaesthetized animal. Administration of the drug was intramuscular in the rear quarter using 1.8 mm Dan-Inject syringes (Dan-Inject ApS., Copenhagen, Denmark) with 2.0 mm, side-ported needles and a Dan-Inject 1M rifle. Uncollared dropout needles were used as a Methane monooxygenase precaution against either an incomplete injection leaving an uncaptured

animal with a needle left in (that it is not believed would fall out), or an inter-os misplacement that if caused by a collared or barbed needle would create excessive site trauma both on entry and removal. Rectal body temperature, breathing, pulse rates, oxygen saturation and capillary refill time were monitored throughout the anaesthesia. Dogs were regularly turned to reduce oedema, with this procedure being executed sternally to avoid stomach torsion. Once recumbent, 1 mL vitamin B complex (Alphasan, Woerden, Netherlands) was given as a compensator for stress-induced losses, along with Effortil (Boehringer Irgelheim Vetmedica GmbH, Irgelheim, Germany) to improve cardiac output, mean systemic blood pressure and aorto-coronary bypass flow were administered.