These attitudes reflected a lack of appreciation of the important role of parasites in generating evolutionary novelty and speciation, also unawareness of the value of parasite life-cycle studies for formulating questions of wider significance in biology, deficiencies which were gratifyingly

beginning to be remedied in the latter half of the century.”
“Microglia, the innate immune cells of the brain, plays a central role in cerebral listeriosis. Here, we present evidence that microglia control Listeria infection differently than macrophages. Infection of primary microglial cultures and murine cell lines with Listeria resulted in a dual function of the two gene expression programmes involved in early and late immune responses in macrophages. Metabolism inhibitor Whereas the bacterial gene hly seems responsible for both transcriptional programmes in macrophages, Listeria induces in microglia only the tumor necrosis factor

(TNF)-regulated transcriptional programme. Listeria also represses in microglia the late immune response gathered in two clusters, microbial degradation, and interferon (IFN)-inducible genes. The bacterial MAPK inhibitor gene actA was required in microglia to induce TNF-regulated responses and to repress the late response. Isolation of microglial phagosomes revealed a phagosomal environment unable to destroy Listeria. Microglial phagosomes were also defective in several signaling and trafficking components reported as relevant for Listeria innate immune

responses. This transcriptional strategy in microglia induced high levels of TNF- and monocyte chemotactic protein-1 and low production of other neurotoxic compounds such as nitric oxide, hydrogen peroxide, and Type I IFNs. These cytokines and toxic microglial products are click here also released by primary microglia, and this cytokine and chemokine cocktail display a low potential to trigger neuronal apoptosis. This overall bacterial strategy strongly suggests that microglia limit Listeria inflammation pattern exclusively through TNF-mediated responses to preserve brain integrity. GLIA 2014;62:233-246″
“Objective To identify and estimate the population costs and effects of a selected set of enforcement strategies for reducing the burden of road traffic injuries in developing countries.\n\nDesign Cost effectiveness analysis based on an epidemiological model.\n\nSetting Two epidemiologically defined World Health Organization sub-regions of the world: countries in sub-Saharan Africa with very high adult and high child mortality (AfrE); and countries in South East Asia with high adult and high child mortality (SearD).\n\nInterventions Enforcement of speed limits via mobile speed cameras; drink-drive legislation and enforcement via breath testing campaigns; legislation and primary enforcement of seatbelt use in cars; legislation and enforcement of helmet use by motorcyclists; legislation and enforcement of helmet use by bicyclists.