Bowhead whales respond to anthropogenic sound in their environment [31], [32] and [33] and concern that bowheads will avoid areas with industrial noise has been the subject of ongoing regulatory discussions of oil and gas operations in the Arctic [34]. In Canada, researchers observed belugas avoiding ice-breaking vessels at great distances and altering their behavior for days following the event [35]. Potential effects of increased sound

from shipping on fish and invertebrates are difficult to assess due to a lack of direct information [36]. In general, vessel noises are within the auditory range of fishes. Ships produce high levels of infrasonic noise, which may be responsible for avoidance reactions observed in fishes Selleck PD-332991 [37]. Contamination may occur from marine discharges, air pollution, and light pollution. Each of these can have long-term and short-term effects. Discharges include oily water, wastewater, ballast water, garbage, and other debris. Pollution is of high concern for animal health

and also for humans eating animals that may have been exposed to contamination [38]. Pollutants can accumulate in animals and concentrations can increase dramatically in higher levels of the food web [39]. Spectacled eiders (Somateria spectabilis) also congregate in winter in vast numbers in small polynyas (open areas within the sea ice) where they would be highly vulnerable to pollution or disturbance [22]. Light pollution is another concern. selleck compound Birds are attracted to lights and bird strikes occur during darkness and heavy fog. High intensity Phosphoribosylglycinamide formyltransferase searchlights used as navigation aids during the fall can attract birds, often resulting in birds colliding with into ship structures [40]. Steller׳s eiders (Polysticta stelleri), an endangered species, are especially at risk as they fly fast and

low in large flocks. Garbage and materials from a lost container cargo can also cause a variety of problems for wildlife. Of particular concern are plastic particles from polystyrene foam and other materials that break down over time and may be ingested by seabirds and marine mammals. Marine debris can also cause a variety of entanglement and other types of fouling [41], [42] and [43]. Incineration of waste can cause emissions of furans, dioxins, heavy metals, and other pollutants. These can enter the marine environment and also affect human health, especially when the pollutants are emitted in the vicinity of communities [44]. Oil spills can result from an accident involving tankers and barges that carry oil and fuel or any vessel that runs on petroleum-based fuels. Oil spills are a concern due to acute and chronic toxicity to marine organisms, fouling of fur and feathers, ingestion of oil directly or through predation on organisms that have taken up oil compounds, and inhalation of volatile fractions of the oil [38].