, 1998). Dimerization via the HisKA

domain of EnvZ is essential for its autophosphorylation and phosphotransfer functions. The HisKA domain comprises a four-helix bundle formed by two identical helix–turn–helix subunits, revealing the molecular assembly of two active sites within the dimeric kinase (Tomomori et al., 1999). KdpD functions as a homodimer (Heermann et al., 1998). Coproduction of two kinase inactive KdpD derivatives KdpD/His673Gln and KdpD/Asn788Asp resulted in a KdpD protein that regained kinase activity in vitro. This result suggested that the functional state of KdpD is at least a dimer and that SRT1720 datasheet the kinase reaction occurs in trans, meaning that one subunit binds ATP in the HATPase_c domain and phosphorylates the other subunit in the HisKA domain. A similar mechanism of autophosphorylation has been observed for other histidine kinases (Yang & Inouye, 1991; Ninfa et al., 1993; Swanson et al., 1993; Wolfe & Stewart, 1993). To solve the question whether KdpD undergoes a monomer-to-dimer transition upon activation, the relative molecular masses of nonphosphorylated KdpD and phosphorylated KdpD were Ruxolitinib determined using several techniques. The molecular mass of native KdpD correlated with a KdpD dimer, and there was no difference between KdpD and phospho-KdpD. Cross-linking experiments with single Cys KdpD derivatives provided evidence for a close contact between

the monomers in the transmitter domain as well as in TM1, but the Cys residues did not play a role in the stabilization of the dimer (Heermann et al., 1998). Nevertheless, an intramolecular disulfide bridge formed between Cys852 and Cys874 was found to be TGF-beta inhibitor important for kinase activity (Jung et al., 1998). Each histidine kinase contains a highly specific stimulus-percepting

domain, the so-called input domain. The input domain of KdpD comprises a large cytoplasmic N-terminal domain, four transmembrane domains (TM1–TM4), and a short part of the C-terminal cytoplasmic domain (Fig. 1). In the C-terminal part of the input domain, adjacent to TM4, a cluster of positively charged amino acids (Arg residues) was identified that is important for the ratio between kinase and phosphatase activities (Jung & Altendorf, 1998a). Replacement of these Arg residues by Gln resulted in KdpD derivatives with either an increased kinase and decreased phosphatase activity (Arg511Gln) or a decreased kinase and increased phosphatase activity (Arg503Gln, Arg506Gln, Arg508Gln). Because the removal of one positively charged amino acid residue was sufficient to perturb the ratio of the KdpD activities, it was proposed that electrostatic interactions within the protein affect the kinase to phosphatase equilibrium (Jung & Altendorf, 1998a). Earlier, the transmembrane domains of KdpD were thought to be essential for sensing.