Likewise, transgenic animals with enhanced expression of particular genes have been exploited. Novel molecular techniques including real-time PCR for the detection of activated genes and their products, gene sequencing technologies, batteries

of specific reagents for detecting cytokines and their receptors, and the accompanying rapid development of next-generation sequencing and growing field of bioinformatics have all revolutionized the depth of dissection of the host immune response that is now possible. Collectively, all these methods have enabled the individual components of host responses to be documented in a manner that just could not be contemplated in the 1970s–1980s. Advances in our understanding Poziotinib mouse of epigenetics, novel approaches to glycan analysis and post-translational modifications Ceritinib molecular weight of proteins, although slower

in their application to H. p. bakeri than, for example, with viruses [68], in the long-term may turn out to be equally, if not more, important in aiding us to piece together all the threads of the host–parasite relationship of this model system. As explained earlier, the development of protective immunity requires immunization of mice by a single or several priming infections, each abbreviated with an anthelmintic drug to prevent worm burdens accumulating. In this setting, antibody also appears to be essential for expression of protective immunity. B cell–deficient mice cannot expel worms following challenge infections, even though they show marked expression of Th2 cytokines in the intestinal mucosa, but do so when given immune serum by passive transfer [69]. Interestingly, the antifecundity response in immunized B cell–deficient mice is unimpaired, indicating that worm fecundity can be entirely abrogated by mechanisms that do not involve antibody. However, antibody was found to play a role in mediating growth impairment and consequently stunting of the worms. Additionally B cells in this host/parasite system play an important ‘helper’ role

in supporting the expansion and maturation of memory Th2 lymphocytes through secretion Fossariinae of IL-2 [70]. Use of gene-deficient mice demonstrated that IgE does not play an essential role in protective immunity and IgA contributes only to a small extent [55]. By contrast, IgM was not found to play a role in protective immunity as AID-/- strain mice (lacking the RNA editing enzyme AID, [activation-induced cytosine deaminase] [71], and hence unable to undergo isotype class switching, for example from IgM to IgG [55]) failed to reject challenge infections with H. p. bakeri, despite producing enhanced levels of parasite-specific IgM [72]. Taken together, these findings support earlier work showing that the protective capacity of immune serum is largely contained within the IgG fraction [54].