Metronidazole is activated intracellularly under anaerobic growth conditions, with the formation of toxic nitro radicals

that damage DNA (Citron et al., 2007). Although Sigeti et al. (1983) originally reported no chromosomal fragmentation in certain B. fragilis strains in response to metronidazole treatment, it is now generally accepted that both single- and double-strand breaks are generated (Dachs et al., 1995) as well as DNA transversions (GC to CG) (Trinh & Reysset, 1998). Metronidazole, therefore, causes DNA fragmentation and enhances the risk of bacterial genetic mutations. Studies in Escherichia coli with impaired DNA repair systems selleckchem found increased sensitivity to metronidazole (Jackson et al., 1984), suggesting that DNA repair mechanisms are important for the repair of metronidazole-induced DNA damage. The DNA repair response of B. fragilis to metronidazole exposure is not well characterized, although putative repair pathways for double-strand break repair and single-strand break repair are evident in the genome annotation. These include a

gene coding for recombinase A (recA). Mutation of recA rendered B. fragilis more sensitive to metronidazole, UV light and hydrogen peroxide (Steffens et al., 2010). The annotated genome also revealed the presence of 24 putative DNA helicases, three of which encode putative RecQ orthologues (Cerdeño-Tárraga et al., 2005). RecQ helicases unwind DNA with 5′–3′ polarity during recombinational repair. Pirfenidone mouse They are ATP dependent and are found in most prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms. All RecQ helicases are defined by the presence of three conserved domains namely the helicase domain, the helicase superfamily C-terminal domain (RecQ-ct) and one

or more and RNase D C-terminal helicase (HRDC) domains (Bennett & Keck, 2004). Mutation of the recQ gene in E. coli, as well as higher organisms, causes an increase in genetic instability as characterized by increased illegitimate recombination (Hanada et al., 1997; Bachrati & Hickson, 2003). Mutation of the HRDC domain of RecQ in Neisseria gonorrhoeae caused increased sensitivity to hydrogen peroxide (Stohl & Seifert, 2006). Some eukaryotes encode this website several RecQ helicases, whereas the prokaryotic bacteria studied thus far have only a single orthologue (Bennett & Keck, 2004; Hartung & Puchta, 2006). The presence of three putative RecQ homologues in the B. fragilis genome is, therefore, novel and of interest. This study aims to investigate the involvement of RecQ proteins in the survival of B. fragilis in response to metronidazole-induced DNA damage, as well as to assess whether there are changes in cellular morphology or DNA integrity in B. fragilis RecQ mutants in the absence of an exogenously added metronidazole. The bacterial strains and plasmids used in this study are shown in Table 1.