However, the impact of such forces on the formation of flat bones such as scapulae, ilia or calvariae is not known. Flat bones develop by intramembranous ossification, in which mesenchymal cells aggregate,

differentiate into osteoblasts and begin to produce bone extracellular matrix; the spatial distribution of muscle forces across these flat bones is often complex and multiaxial [5]. Furthermore, the impact of disease-induced disruptions of the mineralisation process on the spatial-temporal development of bone nanostructure [6], [7] and [8] in the multi-axial force regime of flat bones, and their biomechanical consequences, remain to be determined. We therefore undertook studies to elucidate these structural and mechanical processes using small-angle

X-ray scattering (SAXS) analysis on murine scapula bone. SAXS provides information on the arrangement of nanostructural mineral selleckchem crystallites [9], as well as the collagen fibril orientation. In contrast, techniques such as micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) analysis, quantitative back scattered LBH589 cell line electron microscopy and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry do not provide information on nanostructural components of the bone matrix, as they are spatially limited in resolution to approximately 1 μm. Moreover, scanning SAXS, where a micron-scale X-ray beam provides a 2D raster of SAXS images, has been applied to map micro- and nanoscale heterogeneities in bone tissue [2], and to characterise mineral crystal changes with development [9], disease-induced disruptions of nanostructure [4] and structure at the bone-implant interface [10]. These studies showed that local mechanical 4-Aminobutyrate aminotransferase forces are critical in controlling mineral particle orientation in long bones, with elongated mineral particles in the mid shaft of murine ulnae oriented along the long axis a few weeks after birth, an effect absent in the (load-free) embryonic mouse femora [2]. Evidence of greater

mineral alignment close to implanted tantalum devices and gradients in mineral crystallite thickness have also been shown, and these have been attributed to local mechanical forces that were induced by the implant material [1]. These studies support the idea that alterations at different hierarchical levels in bone are induced by in vivo mechanical stimulation. These nano- and microstructural bone mineralisation patterns will be significantly altered in metabolic bone diseases, which would in turn alter the transduction of the in vivo mechanical load that would result in changes to the force distribution locally. These changes in force distributions would be expected to subsequently alter the tissue development, via mechanotransduction to the osteoblasts, osteoclasts and osteocytes [11] and [12], and thus lead to alterations in bone formation.