Stationary phase cultures yield the most consistent TNF-inhibitory activities (Y.P. Lin, personal communication). Modulation of the mucosal immune system by intestinal commensal bacteria may have important implications for immune homeostasis and biofilm formation [33]. Intestinal bacteria such as L. reuteri may stimulate or suppress innate immune responses via several mechanisms including modulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines. L. reuteri strains in this study can be divided into two subsets, immunosuppressive (ATCC PTA 6475 and ATCC PTA 5289) and immunostimulatory

strains (ATCC 55730 and CF48-3A), and each subset has potential therapeutic value. TNF inhibitory strains of L. reuteri reduced inflammation in a H. hepaticus-induced selleck products murine model of inflammatory bowel disease [26]. By contrast, stimulation of the mucosal innate immune system may be associated with enhanced protection against enteric infections. Interestingly, mucosal inflammation has been associated with enhanced biofilm Nec-1s mouse densities in the intestine [34, 35]. The pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF promotes the proliferation of E. coli, and secretory IgA increased agglutination of E. coli, an initial step in biofilm development [34, 36, 37]. Although, these experiments were

performed with monospecies biofilms in vitro, the data raise questions regarding events that occur in complex microbial communities in vivo. When not Cell press attached to a surface, immunostimulatory L. reuteri strains may stimulate host immune responses and promote commensal biofilm formation, particularly in neonates. When L. reuteri biofilms

are established, probiotic strains may have a diminished ability to stimulate TNF, effectively suppressing the formation of dense, complex multispecies biofilms in the mucus layer. Because such complex, dense biofilms have been associated with inflammation and disease [17], the ability of probiotics to differentially regulate production of immunomodulatory factors in the context of planktonic and biofilm lifestyles may be an important probiotic feature. Alternatively, the TNF stimulatory factor(s) may be produced by L. reuteri biofilms and not detected in the experimental conditions used in this study. In contrast to immunostimulatory L. reuteri strains, anti-inflammatory probiotics may form denser biofilms in vivo that thwart pathogenic biofilm formation by Nirogacestat in vitro preventing harmful host:pathogen interactions and overgrowth of commensal bacteria in the intestine. As an example of pathogen inhibition, other lactobacilli suppressed the binding of Staphylococcus aureus to epithelial cells [38]. Reuterin is a potent anti-pathogenic compound produced by L. reuteri and capable of inhibiting a wide spectrum of microorganisms including gram-positive bacteria, gram-negative bacteria, fungi, and protozoa [39]. Maximum reuterin production by L. reuteri occurs during late log and stationary phase cultures (J.K.